The Maltreatment of Children a Review of Theories and Research Journal of Social Issues

• Loading metrics

Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Improving measurement of child corruption and neglect: A systematic review and analysis of national prevalence studies

• Ben Mathews,
• Rosana Pacella,
• Michael P. Dunne,
• Marko Simunovic,
• Cicely Marston

x

• Published: January 28, 2020
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227884

Figures

Abstract

Objectives

Kid maltreatment through physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, fail, and exposure to domestic violence, causes substantial agin health, educational and behavioural consequences through the lifespan. The generation of reliable data on the prevalence and characteristics of kid maltreatment in nationwide populations is essential to plan and evaluate public health interventions to reduce maltreatment. Measurement of child maltreatment must overcome numerous methodological challenges. Fiddling is known to date about the extent, nature and methodological quality of these national studies. This study aimed to systematically review the about comprehensive national studies of the prevalence of child maltreatment, and critically appraise their methodologies to help inform the design of future studies.

Methods

Guided past PRISMA and post-obit a published protocol, we searched 22 databases from inception to 31 May 2019 to identify nationwide studies of the prevalence of either all five or at least four forms of child maltreatment. We conducted a formal quality assessment and disquisitional analysis of written report blueprint.

Results

This review identified xxx national prevalence studies of all five or at to the lowest degree four forms of child maltreatment, in 22 countries. While audio approaches are available for dissimilar settings, methodologies varied widely in nature and robustness. Some instruments are more reliable and obtain more detailed and useful data about the characteristics of the maltreatment, including its nature, frequency, and the human relationship between the child and the person who inflicted the maltreatment. Almost all studies had limitations, particularly in the level of detail captured about maltreatment, and the adequacy of constructs of maltreatment types.

Conclusions

Countries must invest in rigorous national studies of the prevalence of child maltreatment. Studies should use a sound instrument containing appropriate maltreatment constructs, and obtain nuanced information nearly its nature.

Citation: Mathews B, Pacella R, Dunne MP, Simunovic One thousand, Marston C (2020) Improving measurement of kid abuse and neglect: A systematic review and analysis of national prevalence studies. PLoS ONE 15(1): e0227884. https://doi.org/x.1371/journal.pone.0227884

Editor: Abraham Salinas-Miranda, University of South Florida, United states

Received: September 10, 2019; Accepted: December 31, 2019; Published: January 28, 2020

Copyright: © 2020 Mathews et al. This is an open access article distributed nether the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original writer and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant information are within the manuscript and its Supporting Data files.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors take alleged that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Kid maltreatment is common and causes substantial adverse health, educational and behavioural consequences [1]. Understanding its prevalence and characteristics in nationwide populations is essential to programme and evaluate interventions to reduce maltreatment. All the same, measurement of child maltreatment is known to be far from universal, and when performed must face methodological challenges. This written report systematically reviews the most comprehensive national studies of the prevalence of child maltreatment, and critically appraises their methodologies to help inform future measurement.

Child maltreatment in its five recognised forms is a major public health issue [two]. Physical and mental diseases are caused through proximal and distal pathways. Immediate physical injuries and conditions include encephalon injury and failure to thrive, and a panoply of psychological disorders include anxiety, depression, and suicidality. Studies take found serious furnishings of concrete abuse [three,4,five], sexual abuse [vi,7], emotional abuse [5,8–x], neglect [5,9,11], and exposure to domestic violence [12–14]. Experiencing multiple forms of maltreatment is common [12], and is associated with more severe outcomes [xiv,15], including alcohol and drug abuse, mental illness, interpersonal violence, and sexual risk taking [16].

The adoption of coping mechanisms such every bit smoking, alcohol and drug use tin compound the impairment past causing diseases in the medium to long term; and chronic stress tin cause coronary artery disease, pulmonary fibrosis, and inflammation [17–22]. Potent mediators include prolonged psychological distress, risky behaviours, social withdrawal and dysfunction, impaired cognitive development, low educational and occupational attainment, and interpersonal human relationship difficulties. A growing body of show is showing child maltreatment affects brain development, shortens telomeres, and produces epigenetic neurobiological changes [23–26]. The disease and economic burdens are substantial: a recent estimate of the cost of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) lost across East asia and the Pacific was 1.88% of the region'south GDP, equating to $194 billion in 2012 dollars [27].

As a global policy imperative, the Un recognises the gravity of child maltreatment and its consequences. The Un Agenda for Sustainable Development includes a target of ending abuse of children [28]. Reliable scientific data on national prevalence is essential to measure progress against this goal, and to inform policy efforts aimed at prevention, early on identification and response [29–xxx].

Nationwide studies of the feel of childhood maltreatment can identify baseline prevalence stratified past maltreatment type, as well every bit of import contextual features including the child's sexual activity, age, and human relationship with the abusive person. Without good measurement techniques and repeated measures over fourth dimension, nosotros lack understandings of baseline measures, of whether maltreatment is increasing or declining, of changes in maltreatment types over time, and of the efficacy of policy and practise interventions designed to reduce kid maltreatment for the whole population and for key sub-populations.

Despite the necessity for good data in public health generally and in child maltreatment in particular, approximately half of all countries have failed to report whatever kind of robust prevalence estimates [2], and extant studies are often limited to measuring one or few maltreatment types [31]. Accordingly, prevalence estimates are oftentimes inadequately specified, and are nearly certainly underestimated. In addition, existing studies vary widely in design, sample and methods, and often use not-standardized instruments [five,32]. Where an musical instrument is non-standardized and untested, the risk may be heightened that the study will fail to capture experiences that institute maltreatment, and may capture experiences that exercise not constitute maltreatment, hence producing unreliable results. Importantly, the utilise of unsound maltreatment constructs and operational definitions also compromises the reliability of recorded measures [33–34]. As an example of this, studies of sexual corruption that do not include non-contact sexual abuse will underestimate prevalence; conversely, studies that include equally sexual corruption genuinely consensual acts between peers volition overestimate prevalence. Similarly, studies of fail that do not consider medical neglect volition underestimate prevalence. Studies of emotional abuse that include non-abusive yelling volition overestimate prevalence.

Optimal methodologies for measuring population characteristics of kid maltreatment can ensure adequate detail is captured to yield reliable, detailed, useful data. For best quality estimates, prevalence studies should adopt robust conceptual understandings of maltreatment types and their operational definitions [33]. In improver, prevalence studies need to inquire a series of items to obtain accurate data, rather than a single question which will tend to underestimate prevalence [35]. Similarly, to avoid underestimates, items should be behaviourally specific, rather than vague, ambiguous or non-specific [36]. All national prevalence studies face up methodological and practical challenges, and studies have dissimilar approaches [ii,12,fourteen,xxx]. Ideally, yet, all five forms of child maltreatment should be measured simultaneously, since many children experience such poly-victimization and its heightened consequences [1,14,16]. To provide nuanced, useful information, studies should enquire about prevalence, and nearly the specific nature of the acts, their severity, frequency, and timing, and the relationship of the kid to the person inflicting the abuse [33]. These factors influence health outcomes and provide evidence virtually specific gamble and protective factors and how these may best exist targeted. Rigorous measurement of child maltreatment is circuitous, but is essential to inform prevention efforts and drive nationwide social modify [two,xiv,29,36,37].

Recent research has reviewed global prevalence estimates [2,31], the nature of population health surveys exploring consequences of child maltreatment [37], and approaches in studies of youth [38]. However, to date, there has not been a systematic review and methodological appraisal of high quality national population prevalence studies of child maltreatment to provide a baseline for futurity measurement efforts.

This study aimed to investigate three questions. Get-go, what national studies accept been conducted of the prevalence and nature of all five, or at to the lowest degree four, major forms of child maltreatment? Second, what methodologies were used in these studies? 3rd, what does a critical assay of these studies indicate nearly the methodological rigour, quality, and practical viability of different approaches? The results of our investigation can inform futurity efforts to generate baseline prevalence estimates, pattern policy responses, and chart trends over time, every bit more societies face up the challenge of babyhood maltreatment.

Methods

Search strategy

Our systematic review was guided by PRISMA [39] (S1 Fig). Nosotros adult a protocol, registered at PROSPERO [forty]. #CRD42017068120, https://world wide web.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO). Adopting our search strategy (S1 File), nosotros searched 22 databases from their inception to 31 May 2019.

Eligibility criteria

We searched for quantitative studies of the prevalence of child maltreatment. Included studies met four criteria: (1) main empirical studies of the prevalence of four or 5 types of child maltreatment: ((i) physical corruption; (ii) emotional or psychological abuse; (iii) neglect; (iv) exposure to domestic violence; and (five) sexual corruption; (2) studies conducted nationwide using a representative sample of the population; (3) studies involving adult or child participants providing self-reported data almost their experience, or studies where adults provided information nearly their child'south experience; (4) peer-reviewed studies or substantial gray literature.

Screening

As detailed in our search strategy (S1 File), in Phase 1, MS, JD and ED screened records by title. Nosotros removed duplicates using electronic software (Endnote), and removed remaining duplicates almost the same study, selecting the publication providing the most detailed account. In Phase two, BM and RP independently screened records by title and abstract. Disagreements were discussed betwixt BM and RP to accomplish consensus. To identify any further potential eligible studies at this phase that may non have been captured in the search, all co-authors considered if there were whatever further known studies requiring inclusion that were not in the Phase 2 shortlist. In Phase 3, BM and RP independently assessed full text of screened in articles. Disagreements were discussed betwixt BM and RP to achieve consensus, with reasons recorded. We screened reference lists of included studies to identify whatsoever farther potential eligible studies. Nosotros used a translator to help in screening not-English studies. This process resulted in 23 eligible studies (Fig ane).

Data extraction and assay

We developed a template to extract 60 data items from each study considering blueprint, process, sample, instrument, ethics, and subpopulation analysis (S2 File). We extracted 45 items about the instrument, including: proper noun, psychometric data, definitions of maltreatment constructs, number of questions asked about each type, and whether questions explored: (a) the relationship between the child and the person inflicting maltreatment; (b) nature of the acts; (c) severity (e.g., if they acquired injuries); (d) frequency. MS and BM extracted these data. We separately tabulated the extracted items each study asked about maltreatment, with BM conducting a concluding double-cheque regarding these (S3 File).

Our critical analysis included an appraisal of the construct validity of study items and the soundness of their operational definition. To inform this assay, we identified robust conceptual understandings of each maltreatment type as established in the scholarly literature, and adopted these as an evaluative standard. Physical abuse involves intentional acts of physical strength by a parent or caregiver, excluding lawful corporal penalization [41]. Sexual abuse involves contact and non-contact sexual acts, inflicted by any adult or child in a position of power over the victim, to seek or obtain physical or mental sexual gratification, when the child does non accept capacity to provide consent, or has chapters but does not provide consent [42]. Emotional or psychological corruption is inflicted past a parent or caregiver, and includes emotional unavailability, hostile interaction, developmentally inappropriate interaction, failure to acknowledge the child'southward individuality, and failure to integrate the child into the social world [43]. Fail involves parental or caregiver omissions to provide the basic necessities of life suited to the kid'due south developmental phase, every bit recognised by the child's cultural context, including concrete, emotional, medical, environmental, supervisory, and educational neglect [44]. Exposure to domestic violence involves the child witnessing a parent or other family member existence subjected to assaults, threats or holding harm past another developed or teenager normally resident in the household [12].

Our disquisitional assay was besides informed past an understanding that prevalence studies must exist conducted with low run a risk of bias to obtain reliable findings. In our analysis, nosotros assessed study rigour, quality and practicability, and used a quality assessment tool designed to assess take chances of bias in population-based prevalence studies [45, S4 File]. Using our quality assessment tool, we created an overall risk of bias score for each study which summed scores for individual items (maximum score 10). RP and CM independently assessed each report considering 4 external validity items and five internal validity items. Disputes were resolved through an independent third assessor (Dr., BM). Our disquisitional analysis further considered suitability of approach, considering: methodology to recruit the sample and adjust high-risk sub-samples; administration method; instrument; soundness of conceptual constructs; ethics; and practical viability.

Results

Systematic review

This review identified 23 articles reporting the results of national studies of the prevalence of all five or four of the recognized forms of kid maltreatment. Ane of these articles reported the results of a study conducted simultaneously in nine countries in the Balkan Peninsula, and eight of these national studies met our eligibility criteria [46]. Accordingly, in total, our review identified 30 national studies, conducted in 22 countries. Studies were published between 2005 and 2019. Extracted data revealed study location, telescopic, participants, information collection method, and instrument. Table i presents the extracted information from included studies. The supporting information details the prevalence rates reported past each study (S5 File).

At that place were four studies in the USA [47–fifty], iii in the UK [51–53], two in Hong Kong [54–55] two in Taiwan [56–57], and 2 in Deutschland [58,59]. In that location was ane study in Denmark [60], the Netherlands [61], Switzerland [62], Japan [63], Suriname [64], Saudi Arabia [65], Israel [66], South Africa [67], and Republic of hungary [68]. In the Balkans report [46], eight met eligibility criteria based on the number of types of maltreatment studied: Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia, Hellenic republic, Romania, and Serbia; in general for our purposes, we treat these as one study. The Turkish study involved three forms of maltreatment, so was excluded from our analyses.

Fourteen studies measured all 5 maltreatment types [47–51,53,56–57,61,64–68]. Of nine studies measuring 4 maltreatment types, seven omitted EDV [46,52,58–60,62–63], and ii omitted sexual abuse [54–55]. Eleven studies measured prevalence throughout childhood and in the past year; nine measured prevalence through childhood simply, and three measured by year incidence only.

Only ix studies explored all five types of maltreatment across childhood, defined every bit aged under 18 [48–50,53,64–68]. These studies occurred in seven countries (USA, UK, Suriname, Saudi Arabia, Israel, South Africa and Hungary), and only three involved a sample of adults providing data about experiences over their entire childhood [53,65,68]. Four studies in Germany, the UK and Japan obtained data from adults nearly all maltreatment across childhood except EDV [52,58–59,63].

Viii studies involved merely child participants aged under 18 providing self-study data. Three studies included child and adult participants each providing self-written report information. Five studies involved a household's child participant aged under 18 providing cocky-report data (iv involved children aged 10–17 and one involved children aged eleven–17) and the household's parents providing proxy data about a child anile under the cutting-off. Five studies involved simply adults providing self-written report data (24 twelvemonth olds; 18–24 year olds; 20–49 year olds; 18 and over). Sample sizes ranged from 1094 to 12,035 participants. Five studies adopted measures to recruit high-risk sub-populations [48,56,60,62,64].

7 studies were conducted in schools: Taiwan [56–57], kingdom of the netherlands [61]. Switzerland [62], Suriname [64], and the Balkans study [46]. Eleven studies were conducted in households by interviews, in Hong Kong [54–55], Hungary [68], the Britain [51–53], Germany [58–59], Japan [63], Saudi Arabia [65], and South Africa [67]. Five studies used remote figurer assisted telephone interviews (CATI), with four in the Us [47–50], and one in Denmark [60]. Data collection time ranged from 1 month to two years.

Methodologies to recruit the sample and accommodate high-take a chance subpopulations besides varied. In most studies, the target population was a shut representation of the national population. Studies in schools were washed in countries with loftier school attendance. All studies used random selection. However, few studies used strategies to capture participants from culturally and linguistically diverse groups, or from high-take chances groups such as those in out of habitation care.

Response rates for household studies generally ranged from 56% to 78%, with i reporting a participation rate of 94.8% [67]. Rates in school-based studies showed schools' participation rate ranging from 49%-79%, so with near 100% response rates from children in participating schools. Response rates in CATI studies ranged from threescore% to 79.v%, with more recent studies having lower rates [47–49].

Regarding consent to participate, 18 of the studies involved child participants exclusively or with developed participants. Nine studies involved only child participants; in these, two required merely the child'south consent [56,62], i required the child's consent and parental passive consent [64], one required the child's consent and either passive or active parental consent [46], and v required parental agile consent and the child's consent [54–55,57,61,66–67].

Of the studies involving child participants, 7 reported the measures used by research teams when a child was suspected to accept been harmed or at risk [46–50,53,67]. Nine studies reported other measures to assist any distressed participants [46,48,52,54,56,60,62,64].

Studies used a range of instruments and approaches to measuring each maltreatment type. Tabular array 2 presents central data extracted from the instrument used in each written report. Comprehensive details well-nigh the maltreatment items are detailed in the supporting information (S3 File).

Eight studies used the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ). These studies used different versions of the JVQ, either using its original class [72], an enhanced grade [48–50], or an adapted version [53,62,66–67]. Two studies used the Disharmonize Tactics Scale Parent-Child version (measuring concrete abuse, emotional corruption, and neglect), and the CTS2 (EDV) [54–55]. Two studies used the ICAST-C, in either its original grade [56] or an adapted version [46]. Two studies used the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire [58–59]. Single studies used the Adverse Childhood Experiences International Questionnaire [65], the Agin Babyhood Experiences questionnaire [68], and the Lifestyle and Attitudes Towards Sexual Behavior instrument [63]. Iv studies used a blend of instruments [51,57,61,64]. Two studies used self-adult instruments [52,threescore].

6 studies did not report psychometric information on instrument validity and reliability. 6 studies reported psychometric data on the musical instrument equally used [46,54–56,58,72]. Studies using enhanced or adjusted versions of instruments generally cited the original musical instrument'south data simply did not study further psychometric tests.

Most studies did not define overarching concepts of each form of maltreatment, instead operationalising these concepts into questions about the participant'due south experiences. Approaches to some but non all forms of maltreatment broadly aligned with the nature of maltreatment concepts equally established by the scholarly literature. Approaches to physical abuse and sexual abuse were mostly sound. Approaches to the construct and operationalisation of emotional abuse were generally sub-optimal, with some exceptions (e.g., [46,52]). Neglect was too rarely well-operationalised, with some exceptions (due east.g., [49,52–53,58–59,66].

Studies explored maltreatment experiences in varying depth, reflected by the number and nature of questions asked (Tabular array 2). For sexual abuse, 12 studies asked between 5 and eight questions. Near studies asked nearly the relationship with the person inflicting the abuse, and the nature of the acts; more than than half asked about frequency; but few asked most severity. Other notable differences included: ii studies being limited to sexual abuse past a parent/guardian [51,sixty]; most studies including contact and not-contact acts, but iii studies included contact abuse only [62,65,68]; four studies asking just i question [51,62–63,68].

For concrete abuse, eight studies asked merely one question, although these included multiple distinct concepts [47–51,62,63,68]. Six studies asked between five and nine questions. Virtually asked most human relationship and nature; more than half asked virtually frequency; just few asked about severity. A notable difference was in the handling of spanking on a child'south bottom: 7 studies excluded "spanking on your bottom" from the definition of physical abuse [47–l,53,62,66]; four studies included spanking with a bare hand as physical abuse [46,54–56]; and four studies included as physical abuse being hitting or spanked on the bottom but only when done with an implement or hard object [51,52,57,64].

For emotional or psychological corruption, viii studies asked between five and eight questions. Most asked nigh relationship and nature; more half asked most frequency; but few asked about severity. Other notable differences included: three studies being limited to a single generic question [51,61,64]; seven studies using a single compound question [47–51,62,67]; and only two studies using a detailed calibration of items closely aligned with a sound conceptual model [46,52].

For neglect, 12 studies asked betwixt five and eleven questions. Five studies asked one question [47–48,62,63,68]. Virtually asked about relationship and nature; more than than half asked about frequency; only few asked about severity. Six studies asked detailed questions about multiple dimensions of neglect, and their severity [49–50,52,58–59,66]. Other notable differences included: some studies operationalising neglect very broadly, including a parent having low aspirations [51], or not helping with homework [64]; only one written report request almost educational neglect [64]; and one written report omitting physical and nutritional neglect [46].

For exposure to domestic violence, six studies asked betwixt six and eight questions. Almost asked about relationship and nature; more than half asked about frequency; but few asked virtually severity. Notable differences were: ii studies used the comprehensive CTS2 scale of 39 items originally devised for utilize with adult couples [54–55]; and the original JVQ had two physical assault items [72], and subsequently added six items near threats or property damage by other family members [48–50].

Risk of bias

Tabular array 3 sets out the quality assessment and scoring results for each report. Scores ranged from six to ten. Virtually studies had relatively loftier internal and external validity. Nosotros concluded that studies scoring ix.5 or 10 had minimal bias. V studies achieved scores of 10: two in Hong Kong [54–55], and 1 each in Taiwan [56], State of israel [66] and South Africa [67]. Five studies accomplished scores of ix.5: three in the USA [48–50], one in the UK [53], and the Balkans study [46]. Five other studies achieved scores of 9, from Saudi Arabia [65], the UK [52], Federal republic of germany [62], Hungary [68], and Taiwan [57]. Four studies scored 7, and ii scored six; here we concluded risk of bias was high, specially regarding selection bias and not-response bias.

Discussion

This systematic review identified 30 studies of the prevalence of either four or 5 forms of child maltreatment, conducted in 22 nations. In addition, many other studies have been conducted of iii or fewer maltreatment types, such as studies of sexual, physical and emotional abuse. These have been conducted on a stand-lonely basis [76], or as role of a systematic campaign supported by a global public private partnership [77]. By 2019, the Violence Against Children Surveys (VACS), which also measure out the prevalence of concrete, sexual and emotional corruption, had been conducted in xvi countries and were being planned in a farther viii countries in Africa, Asia and the Caribbean [30,77–78]. Other studies have considered the prevalence of a mixture of peer violence and maltreatment by parents or caregivers [79–fourscore]. Accordingly, a good deal of bear witness has been generated virtually the prevalence of child maltreatment in several dozen nations, representing substantial progress in the international understanding of the epidemiology of kid maltreatment. However, this review has highlighted the fact that the vast majority of nations lack reliable benchmark national prevalence data on a comprehensive assessment of maltreatment, including measurement of four or 5 of the recognised five types of maltreatment, and nigh all lack follow-upwardly studies to establish trends over fourth dimension. This study demonstrates the urgent need to conduct more than rigorous prevalence studies, particularly those by measuring all relevant types of maltreatment, to generate more accurate understandings of the extent of maltreatment, and to enable progress in reducing child maltreatment against the SDG target.

Our review as well shows that there is substantial variation in written report participants across the different studies, limiting comparability and introducing sure strengths and limitations which are important to consider in designing future work. Several studies obtained information using parents as proxies for children nether 10, and reported reliable responses. This approach may capture data about very immature children'due south experiences that is otherwise unattainable, although accurate estimates rely on parents beingness both knowledgeable and truthful in their responses [47]. Even so, the literature reports no show of reporter bias in comparisons of developed proxy and youth cocky-report data [47,48].

Arguably, from a public health perspective, studies provide well-nigh comprehensive and reliable estimates when capturing prevalence data over the entire span of babyhood upward to age 18. Furthermore, where a study's participants are children and or young adolescents, by year incidence data is useful. Over one-half of the studies in this review included children as respondents. In these studies, responses benefitted from being straight and proximate to the experience as well equally capturing useful stratified data most single yr incidence in a closely contemporaneous fourth dimension period. Developmental evidence suggests children's and adolescents' participation is entirely advisable. While adolescents may generally differ from adults in the attainment of psychosocial capacities to understand long-term consequences, regulate carry, and withstand social and emotional pressures, their cognitive capacity is not substantially different from that of adults [81–84]. Similarly, apart from those however in early developmental stages, children's noesis and reliable episodic retention is sufficiently adult to enable participation in survey enquiry [85–86]. This justifies the design of instruments for child and adolescent participants, including the careful approach of the developers of the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire in designing an instrument suitable for participants as young every bit eight [72].

Ethically, there is no impediment to involving kid and adolescent participants [87]. Adolescents and children are cognitively capable of providing their own consent, and are ethically entitled to do so as autonomous individuals. Moreover, adolescents and children have rights to liberty of expression, and behave the right of participation in matters affecting them. While there remains no consensus on the most justifiable arroyo to confidentiality and welfare [87–90], nosotros affirm that studies tin can adopt robust measures to residual imperatives of attaining sufficient study participation, while ensuring participant welfare and confidentiality. While confidentiality is a foundational principle in these studies, the exception to this, conveyed to youth participants at the outset, that cases of current or imminent significant take a chance of danger may be referred to welfare authorities, has been found not to bear upon response rates [38,53]. Alongside this, studies can prefer stepwise approaches cartoon on multiple psychological and legal resources to support participants who disclose astringent incidents or who feel distress [87]. Nonetheless, it is important non overstate the frequency of distress. Several studies have found depression rates of distress amid youth participants in studies of maltreatment, and the level of youth distress does not differ significantly from that of adults. Furthermore, even distressed participants generally maintain their interest was worthwhile [38,91]. A recent US study, for example, found just 0.8% of participants aged 10–17 reported being "pretty or a lot" upset by answering the questions, and even this did not unduly affect their reported willingness to participate [91]. An associated finding is that children in loftier-risk sub-populations, such as those in out-of-home care, have not been well represented, leading to likely underestimates of prevalence and deficient evidence about specific risk profiles.

Studies that rely on adults' retrospective accounts offer the substantial do good of capturing data about experiences across childhood. One limitation of such studies is that they will non obtain recent proximal data of unmarried year incidence. An additional potential limitation, even so to be fully analysed, may be that retrospective accounts are afflicted by diverse kinds of call back bias. We acknowledge that some have argued that retrospective studies do non provide data almost child abuse experiences that is as authentic as prospective studies [92–93] and have cautioned against sole reliance on retrospective accounts, especially where prevalence estimates are used to draw causal inferences almost the result of maltreatment on biomedical diseases. A recent systematic review and meta-assay concluded that prospective and retrospective measures of childhood maltreatment identify different groups of individuals [94]. However, it was too recognised that prospective measures may have lower sensitivity than retrospective measures of the feel of maltreatment, and concluded that "the low agreement between prospective and retrospective measures cannot be interpreted to directly point poor validity of retrospective measures" and that retrospective measures could have greater ability to identify true cases [94]. The well-known discrepancies between truthful maltreatment rates and those recorded in many data sources used for prospective studies is attributable to the low correlation between actual experiences and their representation in official data such as criminal offence statistics and kid protection service records. Few maltreatment experiences are e'er brought to the attention of criminal justice agencies or kid protection services. The caution urged regarding retrospective reports appropriately appears more than directed towards studies because causation of disease than interpretation of population prevalence. It is also accepted that lack of validity tends to underreport the feel of abuse [95–97], and studies of test-retest reliability regarding retrospective accounts have indicated general stability over time [98]. Nosotros acknowledge that retrospective reports may have compromised validity for various reasons, including motivational factors and retentiveness biases, and measurement features including poorly worded questions [92,94]. Overall, yet, our view is that retrospective studies of child maltreatment, especially when well-designed with behaviourally-specific questions grounded in sound constructs of maltreatment, with representative samples of the population, offer the opportunity to obtain sufficiently accurate estimates of the prevalence of child maltreatment experiences.

The fourth finding is that while considerable investment is required for all kinds of approach, viable approaches to survey administration are available for diverse geographical settings to accommodate large and small nations, and attain sufficient participation. The implications of this are clear for future study blueprint. Schoolhouse-based studies appeared most often in small nations, which may more readily facilitate centralised educational sector endorsement for the research, or which may have a high commitment to social research. When schoolhouse leaders agree for their school to participate, children generally participate at a very high rate. Similarly, household studies identified in this review generally occurred in small nations. Both school-based and household studies require substantial numbers of staff, simply may be most feasible where labour costs are manageable and where the social environmental is of sufficient strength to support and possibly fifty-fifty require direct personal involvement in such research. In larger nations, for reasons of practicability and cost, studies used CATI and achieved satisfactory response rates. Maybe for reasons of cost, and practical difficulty, a challenge remains to capture the experience of culturally and linguistically various sub-populations, and hard to reach groups such equally children who are non in school, or who are in out of abode care. Future research could consider optimal local strategies to answer to this challenge.

Our fifth finding is that option, design and testing of an advisable instrument appears an indelible challenge. In this regard, two coexisting needs must be balanced past any study: beginning, to be practicable in terms of the time and cost required to blueprint, test and administrate an musical instrument and minimise missing data; and 2nd, to accomplish sufficient comprehensiveness and ensure construct validity by describing maltreatment types in a way congruent with conceptual understandings [33]. Our review showed that a wide variety of instruments have been used, with psychometric data often not reported. The JVQ was the instrument most often used in either full-form or brusque-form; moreover, several studies adapted the original JVQ, sometimes adding a considerable number of items. These adjusted versions did not appear to have been subjected to testing. While inconsequential modification of a proven instrument obviates the need for re-testing, substantial modification may be further supported by cognitive testing and exam-retest reliability. What is relatively clear is that a proven, sound instrument offers both practicable and methodological benefits over a blended tool, or a new unproven instrument.

Our sixth finding is that instruments must soundly operationalise constructs of each maltreatment type past describing them in a way coinciding with audio conceptual understandings. This review and critical appraisal found that instruments most oft adopted unsound constructs and operationalisation of neglect, and emotional abuse. In particular, many studies did non consider sufficient operational categories of these maltreatment types equally required by sound conceptual models, which will pb to under-estimates of prevalence, and will miss the opportunity to capture important information well-nigh the nature of specific experiences. Other studies used broad or vague conceptual expressions, which will have the opposite effect of over-estimating prevalence. This finding provides a contextual sit-in of the problem of unsound constructs compromising reliability and validity in general [33,34], and of the ongoing challenge to this field to prefer sound constructs of maltreatment and audio behaviourally-specific examples of these constructs [99]. Additionally in this regard, many studies asked only one question about a maltreatment type, which leads to underestimates of prevalence [36]. Single-item assessment, even through a chemical compound question involving multiple elements of a construct, cannot capture accurate or nuanced information and should be avoided wherever possible. Finally, nosotros establish few questions about educational neglect. Arguably, since education is a human right recognised past the United nations Convention on the Rights of the Child article 28, and is a condition for human being flourishing [100] and a protective cistron confronting multiple adversities such as child marriage [101], this is a meaning dimension of neglect warranting greater priority. Nosotros recommend specially close attention to how future studies conceptualise and operationalise these forms of maltreatment.

A seventh finding is that few studies asked detailed follow-upwards questions well-nigh the child'south relationship with the person inflicting the acts, and the severity and frequency of the acts. Generally, studies using the JVQ asked the most detailed follow-upward questions. Obtaining information virtually the severity, frequency, timing, and relational setting of corruption and neglect is important, since the closeness of the relationship between the person maltreating the kid and the kid tin can take significant effects [102–103], and the timing of maltreatment is likewise important, with studies finding effects for both sex and age [104]. From a public health perspective, the measurement of maltreatment should ideally motility beyond raw prevalence, and yield sufficiently sensitive and nuanced information about these fundamental contextual features of the maltreatment to inform time to come public health policy and prevention efforts, including the indication of priority areas for responses. The addition of such questions presents challenges for musical instrument pattern and implementation, including the time to administer additional questions. However, we recommend such questions wherever possible.

Limitations

We reviewed studies measuring the traditional forms of child maltreatment, and excluded studies of agin childhood experiences conceptualised more broadly, such equally peer bullying and community violence. Some researchers recommend that studies include both maltreatment and these other adversities [37] on the basis that chronic exposure to multiple adversities influences developmental trajectories through the lifespan. However, we applied rigorous eligibility criteria of four or v of the recognized maltreatment categories, all clearly associated with adverse sequelae, and which nearly closely reverberate specific SDG targets of caregiver abuse and whatsoever sexual violence. Recent outcomes of the ACE study itself accept only focused on these five types and three classes of household dysfunction [eighteen]. Additionally, our information extraction method for the quality assessment was not formally validated, just we adopted an arroyo similar to that used elsewhere [32,35,45] because key variables in item. Similarly, while at that place were no previously validated risk of bias measures for this specific blazon of prevalence written report, we used a method with high interrater agreement that has been used elsewhere [45], including in prevalence studies of abuse and interpersonal violence [105–106]. Our approach to take chances of bias adopted a conservative approach, and reasonably concluded that studies scoring 9.5 or x had minimal bias.

Conclusions

This systematic review and analysis has shown nationwide studies of the prevalence of child maltreatment accept been conducted, using methods of administration suited to the setting, and involving kid participants, adult participants, or both. Still, in that location are few such nationwide studies of all five or even four maltreatment types, leaving substantial gaps in knowledge nearly the experience of childhood maltreatment in nearly all countries. Overall, our review and analysis indicates many of the completed studies are generally sound, but some have a more comprehensive and conceptually robust approach to provide nuanced, useful data for researchers and policymakers. To enable measurement of progress against the United nations Agenda for Sustainable Evolution Goal sixteen of reduction of child abuse, many countries need to invest in robust national prevalence studies. Such studies should mensurate exposure to domestic violence in improver to physical abuse, sexual corruption, emotional corruption, and neglect. Studies should utilise an musical instrument with demonstrated validity and reliability, and must ensure maltreatment types are operationalised appropriately in the questions asked. If participants are children or adolescents under age 18, studies should capture past yr incidence, as well every bit childhood prevalence. Information should be captured about the specific nature, severity and frequency of the maltreatment, and the relationship of the child to the person who inflicted the acts. Such data tin can all-time inform the development and monitoring of nationwide prevention efforts.

Supporting data

Acknowledgments

We admit Juliet Davis, Elizabeth Dallaston, and Andrea Boskovic for providing enquiry assist. We also thank the periodical reviewers for their helpful comments.

References

1. 1. Gilbert R, Widom CS, Browne K, Fergusson D, Webb East, Janson S. Brunt and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet. 2009;373(9657): 68–81. pmid:19056114
   • View Article
   • PubMed/NCBI
   • Google Scholar
2. 2. Hillis Due south, Mercy J, Amobi A, Kress H. Global prevalence of by-year violence against children: a systematic review and minimum estimates. Pediatr. 2016;137: e20154079. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-4079.
   • View Article
   • Google Scholar
3. three. Gershoff ET, Grogan-Kaylor A. Spanking and Child Outcomes: Sometime Controversies and New Meta-Analyses. J Fam Psychol. 2016;xxx: 453–69. pmid:27055181
   • View Commodity
   • PubMed/NCBI
   • Google Scholar
4. 4. Lansford JE, Contrivance KA, Pettit GS, Bates JE, Crozier J, Kaplow J. A 12-year prospective study of the long-term furnishings of early on child physical maltreatment on psychological, behavioral, and academic bug in boyhood. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002;156: 824–thirty. pmid:12144375
   • View Article
   • PubMed/NCBI
   • Google Scholar
5. 5. Norman RE, Byambaa Grand, De R, Butchart A, Scott J, Vos T. The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional corruption, and neglect: a systematic review and meta-assay. PLOS Med. 2012;ix: e1001349. pmid:23209385
   • View Article
   • PubMed/NCBI
   • Google Scholar
6. 6. Chen LP, Murad MH, Paras ML, Colbenson KM, Sattler AL, Goranson EN, et al. Sexual corruption and lifetime diagnosis of psychiatric disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2010;85: 618–29. pmid:20458101
   • View Article
   • PubMed/NCBI
   • Google Scholar
7. 7. Paolucci EO, Genuis ML, Violato C. A meta-assay of the published research on the effects of kid sexual corruption. J Psychol. 2001;135: 17–36. pmid:11235837
   • View Article
   • PubMed/NCBI
   • Google Scholar
8. 8. Egeland B. Taking stock: Babyhood emotional maltreatment and developmental psychopathology. Kid Abuse Negl. 2009;33: 22–26. pmid:19167068
   • View Article
   • PubMed/NCBI
   • Google Scholar
9. 9. Maguire S, Williams B, Naughton A, Cowley LE, Storm V, Isle of man MK, et al. A systematic review of the emotional, behavioural and cognitive features exhibited past school‐anile children experiencing neglect or emotional abuse. Child Care Health Dev. 2015;41: 641–53. pmid:25733080
   • View Commodity
   • PubMed/NCBI
   • Google Scholar
10. 10. Taillieu TL, Brownridge DA, Sareen J, Afifi TO. Babyhood emotional maltreatment and mental disorders: results from a nationally representative adult sample from the United States. Kid Abuse Negl. 2016;59: 1–12. pmid:27490515
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
11. xi. Hildyard KL, Wolfe DA. Child neglect: developmental issues and outcomes. Child Abuse Negl. 2002;26: 679–95. pmid:12201162
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
12. 12. Hamby SL, Finkelhor D, Turner HA, Ormrod R. The overlap of witnessing partner violence with child maltreatment and other victimizations in a nationally representative survey of youth. Kid Abuse Negl. 2010;34: 734–41. pmid:20850182
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
13. 13. Kitzmann KM, Gaylord NK, Holt AR, Kenny ED. Child witnesses to domestic violence: a meta-analytic review. Consult Clin Psychol. 2003;71: 339–52. https://doi.org/x.1037/0022-006X.71.ii.339.
    • View Commodity
    • Google Scholar
14. 14. Finkelhor D, Ormrod R, Turner HA. Poly-victimization: A neglected component in child victimization. Kid Corruption Negl. 2007;31: vii–26. pmid:17224181
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
15. 15. Wolfe DA, Crooks CV, Lee 5, McIntyre-Smith A, Jaffe PG. The effects of children's exposure to domestic violence: a meta-assay and critique. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2003;vi: 171–87. pmid:14620578
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
16. 16. Hughes K, Bellis MA, Hardcastle KA, Sethi D, Butchart A, Mikton C, et al. The effect of multiple agin childhood experiences on health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public Wellness. 2017;ii: e356–66. pmid:29253477
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
17. 17. Felitti VJ. Adverse childhood experiences and adult wellness. Acad Pediatr. 2009;9: 131–32. pmid:19450768
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
18. 18. Flaherty EG, Thompson R, Dubowitz H et al. Adverse Childhood Experiences and Child Health in Early Adolescence. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167: 622–29. pmid:23645114
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
19. 19. Dong Thousand, Giles WH, Felitti VJ, Dube SR, Williams JE, Chapman DP, et al. Insights into causal pathways for ischemic center disease. Circulation. 2004;110: 1761–66. pmid:15381652
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
20. twenty. Danese A, McEwen BS. Adverse childhood experiences, allostasis, allostatic load, and age-related disease. Physiol Behav. 2012;106: 29–39. pmid:21888923
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
21. 21. Danese A, Pariante CM, Caspi A, Taylor A, Poulton R. Childhood maltreatment predicts adult inflammation in a life-course written report. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2007;104: 1319–24. pmid:17229839
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
22. 22. Danese A, Moffitt TE, Harrington H, Milne BJ, Polanczyk Z, Pariante CM, et al. Adverse childhood experiences and adult gamble factors for age-related affliction: Depression, inflammation, and clustering of metabolic risk markers. Arch Ped Adol Med. 2009;163: 1135–43. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.214.
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
23. 23. Teicher MH, Samson JA. Annual enquiry review: enduring neurobiological effects of childhood abuse and fail. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2016;57: 241–66. pmid:26831814
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
24. 24. Shalev I, Moffitt TE, Sugden K, Williams B, Houts RM, Danese A, et al. Exposure to violence during babyhood is associated with telomere erosion from 5 to 10 years of age: a longitudinal study. Mol Psychiatry. 2013;18: 576–81. pmid:22525489
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
25. 25. Danese A, Moffitt TE, Arseneault L, Bleiberg BA , Dinardo Lead, Gandelman SB, et al. The origins of cognitive deficits in victimized children: implications for neuroscientists and clinicians. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;174: 349–61. pmid:27794691
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
26. 26. Moffitt TE, the Klaus-Grawe Retrieve Tank. Babyhood exposure to violence and lifelong health: clinical intervention science and stress-biology inquiry bring together forces. Dev Psychopathol. 2013;25: 1619–34. pmid:24342859
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
27. 27. Fang X, Fry DA, Brownish DS, Mercy JA, Dunne MP, Butchart AR, et al. The burden of child maltreatment in the Eastern asia and Pacific region. Child Corruption Negl. 2015;42:146–62. pmid:25757367
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
28. 28. Sustainable Development Goals. United Nations Full general Assembly; 2015. Available from: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/
    • View Commodity
    • Google Scholar
29. 29. Hammond WR, Whitaker DJ, Lutzker JR, Mercy J, Chin PM. Setting a violence prevention agenda at the centers for illness control and prevention. Aggress Five Behav. 2006;xi: 112–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2005.07.003
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
30. 30. Sumner SA, Mercy A, Saul J, Motsa-Nzuza N, Kwesigabo Thou, Buluma R, et al. Prevalence of sexual violence against children and utilise of social services-seven countries, 2007–2013. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64: 565–69.
    • View Commodity
    • Google Scholar
31. 31. Stoltenborgh Thousand, Bakermans-Kranenburg Thousand, Lenneke RA Alink, van Ijzendoorn Thou. The Prevalence of Child Maltreatment across the Globe: Review of a Series of Meta-Analyses. Child Corruption Rev. 2015;24: 37–l. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2353.
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
32. 32. Moore SE, Scott JG, Ferrari AJ, Mills R, Dunne MP, Erskine HE, et al. Burden attributable to kid maltreatment in Australia. Child Abuse Negl. 2015;48: 208–20. pmid:26056058
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
33. 33. Manly JT. Advances in inquiry definitions of kid maltreatment. Child Abuse Negl. 2005;29: 425–39. pmid:15970318
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
34. 34. Hamby SL. Intimate partner and sexual violence research: Scientific progress, scientific challenges, and gender. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2014;xv: 149–58. pmid:24464246
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
35. 35. Hovdestadt W, Campeau A, Potter D, Tonmyr L. A Systematic Review of Babyhood Maltreatment Assessments in Population-Representative Surveys Since 1990. PLoS ONE. 2015;10: e0123366. pmid:25993481
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
36. 36. Fisher B. The effects of survey question wording on rape estimates: Evidence from a quasi-experimental design. Violence Confronting Women. 2009;fifteen: 133–47. pmid:19126832
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
37. 37. Anda RF, Butchart A, Felitti VJ, Brown DW. Building a Framework for Global Surveillance of the Public Health Implications of Adverse Childhood Experiences. Am J Prev Med. 2010;39: 93–98. pmid:20547282
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
38. 38. Laurin J, Wallace C, Draca J, Tonmyr L. Youth self-report of kid maltreatment in representative surveys: a systematic review. Wellness Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada: Inquiry, Policy and Practice. 2018;38(2): 37–54.
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
39. 39. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, The Prisma Grouping. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6: e1000097. pmid:19621072
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
40. forty. Mathews B, Norman R, Dunne MP, Marston C. Improving measurement of child abuse and neglect: a systematic review and analysis of national prevalence studies. PROSPERO International prospective register of systematic reviews. #CRD42017068120, 8 June 2017 https://www.crd.york.ac.britain/PROSPERO
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
41. 41. World Health Arrangement and International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect. Preventing kid maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating testify. Geneva: World Wellness Organization; 2006. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43499.
42. 42. Mathews B, Collin-Vézina D. Kid Sexual Abuse: Towards a conceptual model and definition. Trauma, Violence Abuse 2019;20: 131–148. pmid:29333990
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
43. 43. Glaser D. How to deal with emotional abuse and neglect—Further evolution of a conceptual framework (FRAMEA). Child Corruption Negl. 2011;35: 866–75. pmid:22014553
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
44. 44. Dubowitz H, Newton R, Litrownik A, Lewis T, Briggs EC, Thompson R, et al. Examination of a conceptual model of child neglect. Child Maltreat. 2005;x: 173–85. pmid:15798011
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
45. 45. Hoy D, Brooks P, Woolf A, Blyth F, March L, Bain C, et al. Assessing hazard of bias in prevalence studies: Modification of an existing tool and evidence of interrater understanding. J Clin Epidemiol. 2012;65: 934–39. pmid:22742910
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
46. 46. Nikolaidis G, Petroulaki K, Zarokosta F, Tsirigoti A, Hazizaj A, Cenko E, et al. Lifetime and past-year prevalence of children'due south exposure to violence in 9 Balkan countries: the BECAN study. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2018;12:1. pmid:29308086
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
47. 47. Finkelhor D, Ormrod RK, Turner HA, Hamby SL. The victimization of children and youth: a comprehensive, national survey. Child Maltreat. 2005;10: v–25. pmid:15611323
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
48. 48. Finkelhor D, Turner HA, Ormrod R, Hamby SL. Violence, abuse, and law-breaking exposure in a national sample of children and youth. Pediatrics. 2009;124: 1411–23. pmid:19805459
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
49. 49. Finkelhor D, Vanderminden J, Turner H, Hamby S, Shattuck A. Child maltreatment rates assessed in a national household survey of caregivers and youth. Kid Abuse Negl. 2014;38: 1421–35. pmid:24953383
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
50. 50. Finkelhor D, Turner HA, Shattuck A, Hamby SL. Prevalence of Childhood Exposure to Violence, Criminal offence, and Corruption: Results From the National Survey of Children'due south Exposure to Violence. JAMA Pediatrics. 2015;169: 746–54. pmid:26121291
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
51. 51. Denholm R, Ability C, Li 50, Thomas C. Kid Maltreatment and Household Dysfunction in a British Nascence Cohort. Child Corruption Rev. 2013;22: 340–53. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyu071.
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
52. 52. May-Chahal C, Cawson P. Measuring kid maltreatment in the United Kingdom: a study of the prevalence of child abuse and neglect. Kid Abuse Negl. 2005;29: 969–84. pmid:16165212
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
53. 53. Radford 50, Corral Southward, Bradley C, Fisher HL. The prevalence and impact of kid maltreatment and other types of victimization in the Britain: findings from a population survey of caregivers, children and immature people and young adults. Child Abuse Negl. 2013;37: 801–thirteen. pmid:23522961
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
54. 54. Chan KL. Children exposed to child maltreatment and intimate partner violence: a report of co-occurrence amongst Hong Kong Chinese families. Child Abuse Negl. 2011;35: 532–42. pmid:21816472
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
55. 55. Chan KL, Brownridge DA, Yan E, Fong DYT, Tiwari A. Kid maltreatment polyvictimization: Rates and brusque-term effects on aligning in a representative Hong Kong sample. Psychol Viol. 2011;1: four–xv. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020284.
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
56. 56. Feng JY, Chang YT, Chang HY, Fetzer South, Wang JD. Prevalence of dissimilar forms of child maltreatment amidst Taiwanese adolescents: a population-based written report. Child Abuse Negl. 2015;42: 10–19. pmid:25477233
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
57. 57. Shen AC-T, Feng JY, Feng J-Y, Wei H-S, Hsieh Y-P, Huang SC-Y, et al. Who gets protection? A national written report of multiple victimization and child protection amid Taiwanese children. J Interpers Violence. 2016;1–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516670885.
    • View Commodity
    • Google Scholar
58. 58. Hauser Westward, Schmutzer G, Brahler E, Glaesmer H. Maltreatment in childhood and adolescence: results from a survey of a representative sample of the German language population. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2011;108:287–94. pmid:21629512
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
59. 59. Witt A, Chocolate-brown RC, Plener PL, Brahler E, Fegert JM. Child maltreatment in Federal republic of germany: prevalence rates in the full general population. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2017;11:47. pmid:28974983
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
60. sixty. Christoffersen M, Armour C, Lasgaard M, Andersen T, Elklit A. The prevalence of iv types of childhood maltreatment in Denmark. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health. 2013;nine: 149–56. pmid:24155769
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
61. 61. Euser S, Alink LR, Pannebakker F, Vogels T, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van IMH. The prevalence of child maltreatment in the netherlands across a 5-twelvemonth period. Child Abuse Negl 2013;37(ten): 841–51. pmid:23938018
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
62. 62. Schick M, Schonbucher 5, Landolt MA, Schnyder U, Xu W, Maier T, et al. Child Maltreatment and Migration: A Population-Based Study Among Immigrant and Native Adolescents in Switzerland. Child Maltreat. 2016;21: 3–15. pmid:26590238
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
63. 63. Tsuboi Southward, Yoshida H, Ae R, Kojo T, Nakamura Y, Kitamura M. Prevalence and demographic distribution of adult survivors of kid abuse in Nippon. Asia Pac J Public Health. 2015;27: 2578–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1010539513488626.
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
64. 64. van der Kooij IW, Nieuwendam J, Bipat Due south, Boer F, Lindauer RJL, Graafsma TLG. A national study on the prevalence of child abuse and neglect in Suriname. Child Abuse Negl. 2015;47: 153–61. pmid:25937450
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
65. 65. Al Muneef M, El Choueiry N, Saleheen H, Al-Eissa M. The impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences on social determinants amid Saudi adults. Jnl Public Health. 2017;40(3): e219–e227. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdx177.
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
66. 66. Lev-Wiesel R, Eisikovits Z, Starting time Yard, Gottfried R, Mehlhausen D. Prevalence of Child Maltreatment in Israel: A national epidemiological study. Journal Kid Adolescent Trauma. 2018;11:141–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-016-0118-eight.
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
67. 67. Ward C, Artz 50, Leoschut L, Kassanjnee R, Burton P. Sexual violence against children in S Africa: a nationally representative cross-sectional study of prevalence and correlates. Lancet Glob Health. 2018;6: e460–68. pmid:29530424
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
68. 68. Nagy AU, Szabo IK, Hann E, Kosa Thou. Measuring the prevalence of adverse babyhood experiences by survey research methods. Int J Environ Res Public Wellness. 2019;sixteen: 1048. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061048
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
69. 69. Straus MA, Hamby SL, Finkelhor D, Moore DW, Runyan D. Identification of Child Maltreatment with the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales: Evolution and Psychometric Data for a National Sample of American Parents. Child Abuse Negl. 1998;22: 249–seventy. pmid:9589178
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
70. 70. Straus MA, Hamby SL, Boney-McCoy S, Sugarman DB. The Revised Disharmonize Tactics Scales (CTS2). J Fam Bug. 1996;17: 283–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/019251396017003001
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
71. 71. Zolotor A, Runyan D, Dunne MP et al. ISPCAN Kid Abuse Screening Tools Children's Version (ICAST-C): Instrument evolution and multi-national pilot testing. Child Corruption Negl. 2009;33: 833–41. pmid:19857897
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
72. 72. Finkelhor D, Hamby SL, Ormrod R, Turner H. The Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire: Reliability, validity, and national norms. Child Corruption Negl. 2005;29: 383–412. pmid:15917079
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
73. 73. Bernstein DP, Stein JA, Newcomb Physician et al. Development and validation of a cursory screening version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. Child Abuse Negl. 2003;27: 169–90. pmid:12615092
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
74. 74. Douglas EM, Straus MA. Assault and injury of dating partners past university students in 19 countries and its relation to corporal punishment experienced as a child. Eur J Criminol. 2006;three: 293–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370806065584.
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
75. 75. Straus MA, Douglas EM. A Short grade of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales, and Typologies for Severity and Mutuality. Violence Vict. 2004;19: 507–21. pmid:15844722
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
76. 76. Meinck F, Cluver LD, Boyes ME. Physical, emotional and sexual adolescent abuse victimisation in South Africa: prevalence, incidence, perpetrators and locations. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2016;70: 910–916. pmid:26962202
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
77. 77. Chiang L, Kress H, Sumner SA, Gleckel J, Kawemama P, Gordon RN. Violence Against Children Surveys (VACS): towards a global surveillance system. Inj Prev. 2016;22(Suppl 1): i17–i22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2015-041820
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
78. 78. Nguyen KH, Kress H, Villaveces A and Massetti GM. Sampling design and methodology of the Violence Against Children and Youth Surveys. Inj Prev. 2019;25(4): 321–327. pmid:30472679
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
79. 79. Huang Fifty, Mossige S. Resilience and Poly-Victimization among Two Cohorts of Norwegian Youth. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15: 2852. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122852
    • View Commodity
    • Google Scholar
80. 80. Mossige S, Huang L. Poly-victimization in a Norwegian boyish population: Prevalence, social and psychological profile, and detrimental effects. PLoS One. 2017;12(12): e0189637. pmid:29240805
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
81. 81. Albert D, Steinberg Fifty. Judgment and decision making in adolescence. J Research Adolescence. 2011;21: 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00724.x
    • View Commodity
    • Google Scholar
82. 82. Casey BJ, Jones RM, Hare TA. The adolescent encephalon. Ann Northward Y Acad Sci. 2008;1124: 111–126. pmid:18400927
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
83. 83. Steinberg Fifty. Cognitive and melancholia development in boyhood. Trends Cogn Neurosci. 2005;9(2): 69–74. https://doi.org/ten.1016/j.tics.2004.12.005
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
84. 84. Steinberg L, Icenogle G, Shulman E, Breiner K, Chein J, Bacchini D, et al. Effectually the earth, adolescence is a time of heightened sensation seeking and young self-regulation. Dev Sci. 2018;21(2): e12532. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12532
    • View Commodity
    • Google Scholar
85. 85. Borgers N, De Leeuw E, Hox J. Children as respondents in survey research: cognitive evolution and response quality. Balderdash Methodol Sociol. 2000;66: 60–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/075910630006600106
    • View Commodity
    • Google Scholar
86. 86. Riley AW. Evidence that school-historic period children tin can cocky-report on their health. Ambul Pediatr. 2004;four(4): 371–376. https://doi.org/10.1367/A03-178R.1
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
87. 87. Finkelhor D, Hamby SL, Turner HA, Walsh W. Ethical Bug in Surveys almost Children's Exposure to Violence and Sexual Abuse. In: Cuevas CA, Rennison CM, editors. The Wiley Handbook on the Psychology of Violence. Chichester: Wiley; 2016. pp. 24–48.
88. 88. Allen B. Are researchers ethically obligated to report suspected kid maltreatment? A disquisitional analysis of opposing perspectives. Ethics & Behavior. 2009;19: xv–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508420802623641
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
89. 89. Cashmore J. Ethical bug concerning consent in obtaining children's reports on their experience of violence. Kid Abuse Negl. 2006;30: 969–977. pmid:17011032
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
90. 90. Meinck F, Steinert J, Sethi D, Gilbert R, Bellis M, Mikton C, et al. Measuring and monitoring national prevalence of kid maltreatment: a applied handbook. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016.
91. 91. Finkelhor D, Vanderminden J, Turner H, Hamby S, Shattuck A. Upset amid youth in response to questions nearly exposure to violence, sexual assault and family maltreatment. Child Abuse Negl. 2014;38: 217–223. pmid:24004683
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
92. 92. Widom CS, Raphael KG, DuMont KA. The case for prospective longitudinal studies in kid maltreatment research: commentary on Dube, Williamson, Thompson, Felitti, and Anda (2004). Child Corruption & Negl. 2004;28: 715–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.03.009
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
93. 93. Widom CS. Are Retrospective Self-reports Accurate Representations or Existential Recollections? JAMA Psychiatry. 2019;76(6): 567–568. pmid:30892563
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
94. 94. Baldwin J, Reuben A, Newbury J, Danese A. Agreement Between Prospective and Retrospective Measures of Babyhood Maltreatment: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019;76(vi): 584–593. pmid:30892562
    • View Commodity
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
95. 95. Hardt J, Rutter M. Validity of adult retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences: Review of the bear witness. Scand J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Psychol. 2004;45(2): 260–273.
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
96. 96. Widom CS, Morris S. Accuracy of adult recollections of childhood victimization Part 2: Childhood sexual corruption. Psychol Appraise. 1997;9(1): 34–46.
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
97. 97. Williams LM. Recovered memories of corruption in women with documented child sexual victimization histories. J Trauma Stress Disord Treat. 1995;8: 649–673.
    • View Commodity
    • Google Scholar
98. 98. Dube SR, Williamson D, Thompson T, Felitti VJ, Anda RF. Assessing the reliability of retrospective reports. Child Abuse Negl. 2004;28: 729–737. pmid:15261468
    • View Article
    • PubMed/NCBI
    • Google Scholar
99. 99. Herrenkohl T, Herrenkohl R. Assessing a Child'due south Experience of Multiple Maltreatment Types: Some Unfinished Business. J Fam Viol. 2009;24: 485–496.
    • View Article
    • Google Scholar
100. 100. Nussbaum Thou. Creating Capabilities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 2011.
101. 101. Jain S, Kurz Chiliad. New Insights on Preventing Child Union: A Global Analysis of Factors and Programs. Washington, DC: ICRW; 2007.
102. 102. Edwards Five, Freyd J, Dube S, Anda R, Felitti V. Health outcomes by closeness of sexual abuse perpetrator: A test of betrayal trauma theory. J Assailment, Maltreatment, Trauma. 2012;21: 133–148. https://doi.org/x.1080/10926771.2012.648100
     • View Article
     • Google Scholar
103. 103. Trickett P, Noll J, Putnam F. The impact of sexual corruption on female person development: Lessons from a multigenerational, longitudinal research study. Dev Psychopathol. 2011;23: 453–476. pmid:23786689
     • View Article
     • PubMed/NCBI
     • Google Scholar
104. 104. Stark 50, Seff I, Hoover A, Gordon R, Ligiero D, Massetti Grand. Sex activity and age effects in past-year experiences of violence amongst adolescents in 5 countries. PLoS I. 2019;14(7): e0219073. pmid:31283760
     • View Article
     • PubMed/NCBI
     • Google Scholar
105. 105. Elghossain T, Bott South, Akik C, Obermeyer CM. Prevalence of intimate partner violence against women in the Arab earth: a systematic review. BMC Int Health Hum Rights. 2019;xix: 29. pmid:31640716
     • View Article
     • PubMed/NCBI
     • Google Scholar
106. 106. Yon Y, Mikton C, Gassoumis ZD, Wilber KH. The Prevalence of Self-Reported Elder Abuse Amongst Older Women in Customs Settings: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Trauma, Violence Corruption. 2019;20(2): 245–259. pmid:29333977
     • View Article
     • PubMed/NCBI
     • Google Scholar

obrienbler1982.blogspot.com

Source: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0227884

Share this post